Tribes

Direct work with Tribal leaders and investment in Tribal-led strategies are key to designing and implementing effective federal and state policies aimed at supporting early care and education (ECE) in Tribal communities.¹CSCCE recognizes the sovereign status of Tribal Nations in the United States. We capitalize all usages of Tribe and Tribal, as well as all terms relating to Native people, including Indigenous, Native American, and American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN).

Tribal entities in the United States are sovereign nations with distinct governing power and authority. The relationship between Tribal governments and the United States federal government is complex. The founding of the United States cannot be separated from the brutal history of colonization inflicted on the Indigenous people.²Gordon, H.S.J., Around Him, D., Martinez, D.N., & Yamane, C.Y.E.W. (2023). A Resource to Help Researchers and Funders Understand Indigenous Children, Youth, and Families. Child Trends. https://doi.org/10.56417/7763a5472r. In the present day, the political status of Tribes in the United States as both sovereign and dependent may lead to marginalization that further perpetuates inequities. 

In the context of early care and education, state and federal policies impact how Tribal ECE systems operate. Regardless of whether they live on Tribal land or in other communities, early educators who identify as Indigenous need to be represented in state and federal ECE policy discussions. They are impacted by many of the same policies as other early educators, yet it is not evident that their voices and experiences are actively sought at ECE policy tables. 

Despite these historical and current challenges, Tribal communities are working to strengthen their ECE systems to nurture the development and learning of children, strengthen families, and preserve culture and language, in part by preparing and retaining Indigenous early educators. State and federal agencies that collaborate in a government-to-government relationship with Tribal leaders can improve ECE systems for Indigenous early educators and the children in their care. To call attention to early educators in Tribal communities, the Early Childhood Workforce Index includes, for the first time, this Tribal ECE profile.

Native and Indigenous Demographics

In this profile, we use the term Native to refer to people with ancestry to the Western Hemisphere, including American Indian and Alaska Native people. The initialism AIAN is used to refer to American Indians and Alaska Natives.

This profile relies upon existing available data while recognizing that there are limitations: how location and population data are collected and reported can make it difficult to determine who is included and who is excluded. These data collection challenges are not limited to early care and education. They can be traced to the legacies of colonization that have sowed distrust and are further exacerbated by present-day inequities. 

Tribal Nations

As of 2022, there are 574 federally recognized American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States, inclusive of 347 federally recognized Tribes within the contiguous 48 states and 227 federally recognized Tribal entities within the state of Alaska.³U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs. (2023). Indian Entities Recognized by and Eligible To Receive Services From the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/12/2023-00504/indian-entities-recognized-by-and-eligible-to-receive-services-from-the-united-states-bureau-of#:~:text=There%20is%20a%20total%20of,Tribes%20of%20the%20United%20States. 

There are also approximately 400 Tribes that are not federally recognized.⁴U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2012). Indian Issues: Federal Funding for Non-Federally Recognized Tribes. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-12-348.pdf.

• Federal recognition among Tribes is highly contested because of the history of colonization. 
• Federal recognition does not establish the existence of a Tribe, rather it affirms Tribal communities as socio-political entities predating the existence of the United States.
• Federal recognition grants Tribal governments sovereignty over what happens to their communities, access to federal resources, and the legal right to their land.

The 2020 Census found that only 13 percent of self-identified AIAN people live on reservations or other trust land. The overwhelming majority live off Tribal lands, mostly in cities.⁵U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health. American Indian/Alaska Native Health. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/american-indianalaska-native-health#:~:text=As%20of%202022%2C%20there%20are,reservations%20or%20other%20trust%20lands.

The largest Tribal nations include the following:⁶U.S. Census Bureau. (2022). American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) Alone or in Any Combination by Selected Tribal Groupings.  American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT5Y2022.B02017?q=B02017:%20AMERICAN%20INDIAN%20AND%20ALASKA%20NATIVE%20(AIAN)%20ALONE%20OR%20IN%20ANY%20COMBINATION%20BY%20SELECTED%20TRIBAL%20GROUPINGS&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B02017. 

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN)

According to the 2020 United States Census, 3.7 million individuals identified as American Indian or Alaska Native alone, and 9.7 million individuals identified as American Indian or Alaska Native alone or in combination with another race.⁷Jones, N., Marks, R., Ramirez, R., & Ríos-Vargas, M. (2021, August 12). Improved Race and Ethnicity Measures Reveal U.S. Population Is Much More Multiracial. United States Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html.  

More than one third (or 38 percent) of AIAN people reside in five states: California, Texas, Oklahoma, Arizona, and New York. The states with the highest percentage of AIAN people include Alaska, Oklahoma, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Montana.⁸ U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census. https://public.tableau.com/views/2RaceandEthnicityintheUnitedStates2010Censusand2020Census/RStatePerDash?%3AshowVizHome=no

AIAN Child Population Under Age Five

185,840⁹U.S. Census Bureau. (2022). Sex by Age (American Indian and Alaska Native Alone). American Community Survey (ACS). https://data.census.gov/table?q=united%20states%20age%20american%20indian%20alaska%20native

Federal Funding for Tribal Early Care and Education

Child Care Development Fund (CCDF)

The primary funding source for Tribal child care is the Child Care Development Fund (CCDF) via discretionary and mandatory funds. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) allocates at least 2 percent of the CCDF discretionary funding budget and a fixed allocation of $100 million in mandatory funding to Tribes.¹⁰U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2021, July 30). Information Memorandum: ARP Act Increased Mandatory and Matching Funds. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/occ/CCDF-ACF-IM-2021-04.pdf. In fiscal year 2023, 265 Tribal lead agencies received nearly $557 million in CCDF grants.¹¹Administration for Children and Families. (2023). Request for Information: Meeting the Child Care Needs in Tribal Nations. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/07/27/2023-15930/request-for-information-meeting-the-child-care-needs-in-tribal-nations#footnote-1-p48409. Meanwhile, the five U.S. territories received approximately $115 million, and U.S. states (including the District of Columbia) received nearly $10.7 billion.¹² Office of Child Care. (2023). GY 2023 CCDF Allocations (Based on Appropriations). Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/occ/data/gy-2023-ccdf-allocations-based-appropriations. 

The Further Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2024 (H.R. 2882) enacted into law on March 23, 2024, set aside $236 million of CCDF discretionary funds for Tribes and Tribal organizations.¹³ H.R.2882 – 118th Congress (2023-2024): Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024. (2024, March 23). https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/2882/text?s=1&r=50. In addition, HHS has set aside an additional 3 percent of CCDF discretionary funds for Tribes.¹⁴Child Care Technical Assistance Network. (2022, October 25). FY 2023-2025 Tribal CCDF Plan Preprint Resources. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.https://childcareta.acf.hhs.gov/fy-2023-2025-tribal-ccdf-plan-preprint-resources.

Head Start

The Office of Economic Opportunity launched 34 American Indian and Alaska Native Head Start programs in 1965. As of 2022, there are 150 Head Start and 58 Early Head Start Tribal Programs operated by grants to federally recognized Tribes or consortia of Tribes (also known as Head Start Region XI) across 26 states, with approximately 44,000 children of AIAN heritage attending Head Start across all regions.¹⁵Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center. (2023). American Indian and Alaska Native Programs. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/programs/article/american-indian-alaska-native-programs#:~:text=Head%20Start%20launched%2034%20American,AIAN%20and%20non%2Dtribal%20programs. In fiscal year 2022, AIAN Head Start programs received $307 million in federal funding. The five U.S. territories plus Palau, received $366 million, and U.S. states (including the District of Columbia) received nearly $9.5 billion.¹⁶ Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center. (2022). Head Start Program Facts. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/data-ongoing-monitoring/article/head-start-program-facts-fiscal-year-2022. 

Tribal Early Learning Initiative (TELI)

The Administration for Children and Families (ACF) began the Tribal Early Learning Initiative (TELI), a partnership between Tribal communities and ACF, in 2012. The partnership supports the coordination of early learning and child development programs across child care, Head Start, preschool, and home visiting. TELI also supports collaboration to make system improvements for the delivery of high-quality services.¹⁷Administration for Children and Families. (2022). Tribal Early Learning Initiative. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ecd/tribal/tribal-early-learning-initiative. 

After the conclusion of the second TELI cohort in 2017, Tribal leaders expressed continued interest in the program. ACF began a new TELI cohort in 2022: 49 Tribes applied to use CCDF funds for TELI activities, and eight Tribes indicated an interest in participating in the TELI Collaborative. The TELI Collaborative provides technical assistance over three years and is provided through the Office of Child Care’s Tribal Child Care Capacity Building Center (TCBC).¹⁸ Administration for Children and Families. (2022). Tribal Early Learning Initiative. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ecd/tribal/tribal-early-learning-initiative.

COVID Relief Funding 

As part of COVID relief funding, Tribes received the following additional funding: $96 million from the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES);¹⁹Administration for Children and Families. (2020). Information Memorandum: Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF) Discretionary Funds Appropriated in the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/occ/ccdf_acf_im_2020_01.pdf. $275 million from the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations Act (CRRSA), making up 2.75 percent of the total CRRSA funds;²⁰ Smith, L.K., & Mullaly, H. (2021, April 4). Tribal Use of Supplemental CCDBG funds from the CRRSA. Bipartisan Policy Center. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/blog/tribal-use-of-supplemental-ccdbg-funds-from-the-crrsa/. and a significant investment of $20 billion from the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA).²¹ U.S. Department of the Treasury. Coronavirus State and Local Fiscal Recovery Funds for Tribal Governments. https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/coronavirus/assistance-for-state-local-and-tribal-governments/state-and-local-fiscal-recovery-fund/tribal-governments#:~:text=The%20American%20Rescue%20Plan%20Act,the%20Secretary%20of%20the%20Treasury. Of the ARPA funding available, $1.2 billion was used to stabilize child care. ARPA legislation also enacted a permanent appropriation of $100 million annually to Tribes in mandatory funding, nearly doubling the previous mandatory CCDF allocations.²²Smith, L., & Cardona, M. (2022). The Impact of Federal Early Care And Education Programs on Tribes. Bipartisan Policy Center. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/BPC_Early-Childhood-Tribal-Paper_R01.pdf However, the National Indian Child Care Association expressed concern that setting a permanent fixed amount, rather than increasing the allocation percentage, could stifle future growth.²³National Indian Child Care Association. (2023, August 16). Major Change Proposed to CCDF That Will Affect Tribal Funding. https://www.nicca.us/post/major-change-proposed-to-ccdf-that-will-affect-tribal-funding.

Federal Funding Access Limitations

Child Care Development Fund (CCDF)

Navigating the availability, eligibility, and reporting requirements of federal funding poses challenges across communities, and Tribal communities face additional barriers as detailed below. Specialized technical assistance and investments in relationship building could support Tribal communities in accessing and effectively implementing federal funds. 

1. Tribal child count data used to calculate funding allocations only includes children who reside on reservation lands. However, 78 percent of AIAN children live outside of Tribal areas, thus likely resulting in an undercount in the number of  AIAN children who may need culturally appropriate care and not have access otherwise.²⁴Bipartisan Policy Center. (2021). Tribal Early Care and Education Programs. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Funding-overview-tribal.pdf.
2. Individual Tribes have discretion in defining family eligibility for CCDF-funded programs. Some Tribes require children to be enrolled members of that Tribe, while others are open to serving all children regardless of Tribal affiliation.²⁵ Administration for Children and Families. (2023). Request for Information: Meeting the Child Care Needs in Tribal Nations. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/07/27/2023-15930/request-for-information-meeting-the-child-care-needs-in-tribal-nations#footnote-1-p48409. However, Tribal funding is reserved for those living on or near Tribal lands or reservations.
3. Federal funding is restricted to federally recognized Tribes. Yet an estimated 54 percent²⁶ As of 2022, the number of federally recognized Tribes is 574. In 2023, 265 federally recognized Tribes received CCDF funds, therefore, 309, or approximately 54 percent, of federally recognized Tribes did not receive CCDF funds. of federally recognized Tribes do not receive CCDF funding, in addition to the 400+ non-federally recognized Tribes that are not eligible.
4. Tribes must have at least 50 children under the age of 13 to receive funding. Smaller Tribes may join together and create a consortium. Twenty Tribes operate as consortia.²⁷ Administration for Children and Families. (2023). Request for Information: Meeting the Child Care Needs in Tribal Nations. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/07/27/2023-15930/request-for-information-meeting-the-child-care-needs-in-tribal-nations#footnote-1-p48409.
5. Tribal funding is not determined by the total population number, and there is no official documentation that verifies whether the current funding sufficiently meets the needs of Tribal communities.²⁸ Smith, L., & Rosen, S. (2022). Righting a Wrong: Advancing Equity in Child Care Funding for American Indian & Alaska Native Families. Bipartisan Policy Center. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/BPC-Tribal-Report_RV5.pdf.

Head Start 

Tribal Head Start programs have raised the need for additional funding to renovate facilities and improve sanitation infrastructure and transportation.²⁹Bipartisan Policy Center. (2021). Data and Funding Gaps in Tribal Early Care and Education. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Data-and-Funding-Gaps-in-Tribal-Early-Care-and-Education.pdf. Additionally, as is true across ECE programs, there is a critical need to recruit and retain early educators to maintain stable programs and reduce staff turnover.

Preschool Development Grant Birth Through Five (PDG B-5)

Tribes are ineligible to apply for funding from some major federal ECE programs such as the Preschool Development Birth Through Five Grants,³⁰Smith, L., & Cardona, M. (2022). The Impact of Federal Early Care and Education Programs on Tribes. Bipartisan Policy Center. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/BPC_Early-Childhood-Tribal-Paper_R01.pdf. which many states are using to bolster their support for early educators.³¹BUILD Initiative. (2023). In Brief: Learning from the New Round of PDG B-5 Systems Building Grants. https://buildinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/PDG-Series-Workplace-Compensation-2023.8.28.pdf.

Tribal ECE Workforce

Despite legacies of colonization and traumatic injustice, Tribal communities are working to provide culturally rich, high-quality care and education to young children in their Tribes and communities. Research has shown that AIAN children enrolled in ECE programs experience improved long-term educational outcomes.³²Patel, A., Amadon, S., & Around Him, D. (2023). Pre-K May Be Critical to Academic Success for American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) Children. Child Trends. https://doi.org/10.56417/6582m1357z.

While information about Tribal ECE programs—as well as AIAN early educators working in ECE programs and the children served—is limited, we do know that 2 percent of the ECE workforce identify as  American Indian or Alaska Native.³³ Authors' analysis of 2021 American Community Survey public-use microdata, accessed through IPUMS at https://doi.org/10.18128/D010.V14.0. With such sparse information, it’s difficult to assess the extent to which states and Tribes are collaborating to best support early educators who may themselves be American Indian or Alaska Native and/or may be providing care to AIAN children, particularly if the educators or children do not live on Tribal lands. In the following sections, we highlight opportunities and initiatives to better support Native early educators and the children in their care.

Tribal ECE Workforce Supports

Federal funding through CCDF is commonly used by states to fund workforce support measures such as professional development and training opportunities. It can be difficult to assess whether—or to what extent—Tribes are using CCDF to support early educators because CCDF Tribal plans are not publicly posted. However, ACF and the Office of Child Care (OCC) granted access to the Bipartisan Policy Center to review CCDF Tribal plans. Their review found that:

The Bipartisan Policy Center’s review did not include Tribal plans related to compensation.

Regardless of Tribe size, Indigenous language and culture are foundational elements in Tribal ECE programs, and educators would likely benefit from workplace supports to deliver relevant care and education. For example, the American Indian and Alaska Native Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey 2019 (AIAN FACES 2019) examined the language and cultural experiences of AIAN children in Head Start programs and found that 100 percent of Region XI Head Start children received some Native language instruction, slightly more than 40 percent listened to stories shared in a Native language, and more than 50 percent interacted with their teachers in a Native language at least once a week.³⁵Administration for Children and Families.(2023). At a Glance: Native Language Use in Region XI Head Start Classrooms. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/report/native-language-use-region-xi-head-start-classrooms. Note: Head Start programs in Tribal areas may be referred to as Region XI, which serves children and families in programs operated by federally recognized AIAN Tribes, though not all children served in Region XI Head Start are American Indian or Alaska Native.  

Tribal ECE Workforce Initiatives 

To address staffing shortages for AIAN Head Start programs, ACF and HHS announced a new partnership program: Tribal Colleges and Universities Head Start (TCU-HS). In 2022, President Biden signed the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2023, which appropriated $8 million for the TCU- HS program to add 700 Tribal educators with degrees in early childhood education by 2028.³⁶Administration for Children and Families. (2023, October 20). Biden-Harris Administration Announces Increased Investment in Tribal Colleges and Universities-Head Start Partnership Program [Press Release]. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/media/press/2023/biden-harris-administration-announces-increased-investment-tribal-colleges-and#:~:text=The%20Administration%20for%20Children%20and%20Families%20(ACF)%20at%20the%20U.S.,Native%20(AIAN)%20Head%20Start%20programs. 

The TCU-HS program builds on a history of partnerships between Tribes and other community and philanthropic entities aimed at strengthening the ECE workforce and improving the quality of services. For example, the American Indian College Fund launched their first ECE program initiative called Wakanyeja “Sacred Little Ones” In 2011. The five-year program brought together Tribal colleges, communities, educators, and families to focus on improving early care and education. The program prioritized five domains to support children’s development and facilitated access to education and training for current and future early educators. Teacher education programs were developed at Tribal colleges in partnership with Native communities and included instruction around Indigenous languages and cultures and curriculum development and training to integrate Indigenous languages and cultures into the classroom.³⁷American Indian College Fund. (2019). Wakanyeja Early Childhood. https://collegefund.org/programs/indigenous-education/wakanyeja-early-childhood-education-initiative/.

In 2021, the Early Educator Investment Collaborative (EEIC) announced support for partnerships between higher education institutions and States, Territories, and Tribal Nations to support ECE teacher preparedness. Two of the six grant recipients were dedicated to strengthening programs that prepare early educators in Tribal Nations. 

• College of Menominee Nation (CMN): Based in Keshena, Wisconsin, CMN received EEIC funds to support educational pathways for early educators along with culturally responsive programs and access to tutoring, counseling, and mentorship. CMN offers a multicultural framework for early educators through the Indigenous Early Childhood Education Teaching Resources. Resources were developed through an intertribal approach to promote cultural diversity and promote inclusion across Tribes. 
• Salish Kootenai College (SKC): Based in Pablo, Montana, the SKC Early Learning Center is a licensed school providing care for children ages six weeks to six years. The center partners with the SKC Education Department to provide training for early childhood education students. The EEIC awarded SKC a grant to support their Indigenous Early Childhood Teacher Preparation Program in 2022. In an April 2023 webinar held by EEIC, SKC reported that the program’s retention rate had increased from 50 to 90 percent³⁸Early Educator Investment Collaborative. (2023, April 4). Enhancing ECE Systems Capacity: The Leading Role of Higher Education. [Webinar]. https://earlyedcollaborative.org/grants/innovation-grant-opportunity/4-4-23-grantee-webinar/. thanks to the financial incentive and additional support provided to students. 

State Highlights 

To better support AIAN early educators and children, states need government-to-government structures and relationships to build collaboration and coordination with Tribal leaders as equal partners.³⁹Fabre, B., Grunewald, R., Smith, L.K., & Osborn, C. (2023). Invisible Children, Invisible Families: A Blueprint for Supporting the Child Care Needs of American Indian and Alaska Native Families. Bipartisan Policy Center. https://bipartisanpolicy.org/download/?file=/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/BPC_Tribal-Blueprint-Report_R05.pdf. 

New Mexico, A Leader in State-Tribal ECE Partnerships

New Mexico maintains a government-to-government working relationship with 23 Tribes, Pueblos, and Nations. Through this relationship, Tribal leaders played an active role in transforming New Mexico’s ECE system. When the Early Childhood Education and Care Department (ECECD) launched in July 2020, its goals included: improving relationships with the state's Tribes, Pueblos, and Nations; building an Indigenous ECE workforce; and expanding culturally and linguistically diverse programs. Creating the position of Assistant Secretary for Native American Early Education and Care allowed ECECD to place a specific focus on building a responsive early education system for Native children and families.

Furthermore, at a White House press conference in July 2023, New Mexico announced a partnership between ECECD and Tribes, Pueblos, and Nations to create an additional 554 new slots in Tribal pre-K programs as part of a larger effort to increase pre-K slots, boost instructional hours, and improve compensation for pre-K teachers.⁴⁰Office of the Governor. (2023, July 27). New Mexico Executes Historic Expansion of New Mexico Pre-K Partnership With Tribes, Pueblos, and Nations [Press Release]. https://www.governor.state.nm.us/2023/07/27/new-mexico-executes-historic-expansion-of-new-mexico-pre-k-partnership-with-tribes-pueblos-and-nations/.

Arizona, Funding for Tribal ECE initiatives

First Things First is a statewide organization established by Arizona voters to partner with families and communities to support the care and education of young children. First Things First receives state revenue through a tobacco tax to invest in ECE programs, including specific ECE initiatives in Tribal communities. First Things First collaborates with federally recognized American Indian Tribes throughout Arizona to support Tribal-led efforts to support the development and education of children in Tribal communities.⁴¹ First Things First. (n.d.). Tribal Affairs. https://www.firstthingsfirst.org/governance/tribal-affairs/.

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